This paper likewise contributes to recent scholarship on transnational anarchism, arguing that the anarchist tradition cannot be understood outside its transnational, cosmopolite and multilingual networks and concrete practices: therefore, only relational, contextual and space-sensitive approaches can make sense of its specificity. Then, I argue for a connection between anarchist, humanistic, cultural and historical approaches to geography, to extend the empirical and theoretical reach of the discipline and its relations with the ‘humanities’. Berneri’s criticisms to utopia were eventually informed by notions of anti-colonialism and anti-authoritarianism, especially referred to her original critique of twentieth-century totalitarian regimes. Extending current literature on anarchist geographies, utopianism and on the relation between geography and the humanities, I argue that a distinction between authoritarian and libertarian utopias is key to understanding the political relevance of the notion of utopia, which is also a matter of space and geographical imagination. This paper addresses works and archives of transnational anarchist intellectual Marie-Louise Berneri (1918-1949), author of a neglected but very insightful history of utopias and of their spaces. Finally, Santos' biography and networks provide an example of cosmopolitan and multilingual intellectual work that can provide insights for the present-day the internationalization of critical and radical geographies. Second, the ideas spiralling out of Santos' networks can still nourish present-day scholars in development and critical development theories who are willing to criticize the 'ideology of development' without forgetting the material existence of poverty and socio-spatial marginalization. Far from being passive receivers of ideas from the Global North, Southern scholars like Santos contributed to shape worldwide concepts in critical studies on development and underdevelopment. Our main argument is twofold: first, we argue that Santos played important although poorly understood roles in the debates which shaped both Anglophone and French-speaking critical geographers in the 1960s and 1970s. This paper addresses a corpus of unpublished sources in a first attempt to reconstruct the exile networks of Brazilian geographer Milton Santos, placing his geographical and political work in the context of present-day debates on development, anti-development and critical development. While, in the last decades, the imperial past of geography has been one of the main targets of radical critics within the discipline, now works by early unorthodox and critical authors, including anarchist and anti-colonialist ones, increasingly attract scholarly attention. This definition includes the notions of 'genealogy', 'anarchist roots of geography' and 'early critical geographies' and participates in a wider reassessment of plural and contested geographical traditions. All these lines of study resolutely link academic scholarship and grassroots activism. Highlighting the strong historical inspiration of the present wave of studies, especially committed to establishing new links with the anarchist tradition, I discuss the contributions that new authors are giving to current geographical scholarship in terms of radical pedagogies, more-than-human and non-representational approaches, alternative geographical traditions, transnationalism and cosmopolitism, gender studies and 'total liberation'. As this new wave is having a very quick and spectacular development, quite corresponding to the rising of a new generation of scholars, this chapter especially focuses on these new developments and discusses their ruptures and continuities with precedent 'bursts' of anarchism in geography such as the historical experiences of the networks associated with Elisée Reclus and Pyotr Kropotkin, and the rediscovery of these authors which occurred between the 1970s and the 1980s. A renewed interest in the relationship between geography and anarchism has characterised international tendencies in geographical scholarship in the last 10 years or so.
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